Tips for Writing Papers*

This handout contains some guidelines for composing papers in general and for composing research papers according to A.P.A. style.  The information is largely based upon A.P.A. standards and is not all-inclusive.  Students are advised to seek out more authoritative sources on writing and on A.P.A. standards need arises.  Unless otherwise indicated, the information in this handout represents the standards that will be used to grade papers assigned by Megan. 

The Purpose of Research Papers:

§  Instructors commonly ask students to write a specific type of paper, a research paper.

§  Writing a research paper provides students with an opportunity to evolve past personal opinions and interpretations to become knowledgeable about what professional literature has to say about specific topics.

§  Having such awareness and being able to apply it appropriately forms the basis of competent professional practice; it is the foundation that distinguishes a professional from a nonprofessional in a field.

§  Research papers should be based on objective facts as reported from credible and properly credited expert sources of information.

§  Research papers are not student opinion/ impression papers.

§  Students are very commonly required to write their research papers following a certain professional writing style.

§  The professional format of writing that is used in the human services field is A.P.A. style. 

A.P.A. Style:

§  A.P.A. style is the professional writing style established by the American Psychological Association.

§  A.P.A. style differs from other types of professional writing formats such as M.L.A..

§  A.P.A. style provides the guidelines for how professional papers are formulated in the social sciences.

§  It is the designated professional writing style of the social sciences, and, resultantly, is the designated professional writing style of the human services field.

§  Several standards of A.P.A. style are provided in this handout.

ú  However, all A.P.A. standards are not, and students are expected to research A.P.A. style in more detail if the need arises.

ú  Students are ultimately expected to become knowledgeable about A.P.A. style through independent research.

§  The College library has resources on writing in A.P.A. style, including on its webpage which can be found through the College’s website at www.abtech.edu.

§  Additional information on A.P.A. style can be found at www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/toc.shtml and at www.A.P.A.style.org, as well as through other websites.

§  Some college English textbooks present information on A.P.A. style.

§  Similarly, the American Psychological Association (which establishes A.P.A. standards) publishes a purchasable manual that outlines A.P.A. standards.

§  The textbooks used as a part of the Human Services curriculum very commonly follow A.P.A. standards.

§  Students are encouraged to consult with their instructor about how much A.P.A. style is needed for the successful completion of their papers.

ú  I.e., Megan does not require an abstract or a running head (i.e., short title) for the papers she requests in A.P.A. style.

Academic Honesty:

§  The College’s policy on academic dishonesty reads as follows: 

“You may not deceive any official of the College by cheating on any assignment, examination, or paper.  This includes plagiarism, which is the intentional theft or unacknowledged use of another’s words or ideas.  Plagiarism includes (but is not limited to) paraphrasing or summarizing another’s words or works without proper acknowledgement, or purchasing or suing a paper or presentation written or produced by another.  The faculty of A-B Tech may also consider presenting as original work a paper written for one class to satisfy a requirement in another class to be academic dishonesty.”

§  In order to widen their knowledge base, Megan requires student paper, presentations, and projects to be novel and new to students.

ú  This means that the topic of a paper, presentation, or project cannot be one that the student has previously investigated, written about, or had direct experience with— whether academically, vocationally, or personally.

General Steps to Writing a Research Paper:

§  In general, writing a research paper requires you to:

ú  Explore a topic in detail.

ú  Find and choose data.

ú  Analyze such data for implications and relationships.

ú  Develop and follow insights.

ú  Categorize.

ú  Develop an outline.

ú  Be precise and clear in thinking and in writing.

ú  Revise.

§  Steps to writing a research paper include:

ú  Start early.

ú  Select a subject.

?  Try to select a subject that interests you.

?  Try to look at the paper as a way to further your interest in a subject.

?  Be certain that the subject fits with the paper’s requirements.

?  Try to select a subject that will render plenty of material.

ú  Decide on an approach to and a focus for your material.

?  The information that you present in the paper should rotate around this focus.

?  Make certain that you have this focus in mind before you start writing and keep it in mind as you write and proof your material.

ú  Narrow your subject according to your focus.

?  Topics should not be too broad or too narrow given the instructor’s expectations for the paper.

ú  Find references and use these in developing a reference page.

ú  Make notes.

?  Try to do this in as orderly of a manner as possible.

?  Be certain that you can tie your notes to their source.

°         This will help in creating references and with citations.

?  Except when you choose to use the exact words of a source in the form of a quote in your paper, write notes in your own words.

°         Always clearly distinguish between your words and the source’s.

°         Avoid quoting too much and too often.

?  Notes should be concise while providing enough detail for accurate understanding.

?  If you write notes in shorthand, make certain you know the meaning of the abbreviations that you use.

?  Look up any words or phrases that you do not know.

?  Do not rely on material that you do not understand.

?  If you make notes on any insights or opinions that you have, label these as our own so that you do not confuse them as fact or opinion from another source.

?  Make certain that you do not overgeneralize material.

?  Make certain that your notes reflect exactly what the source was trying to communicate.

ú  Categorize your notes.

?  Labeling or organizing your notes by subtopic can help.

ú  Create a general outline, including an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

ú  Write a detailed outline.

?  This helps you to think through your material.

?  Make certain that everything in the outline can be linked relevantly to the paper’s purpose/ topic.

?  Categorize material into logical and relevant subtopics.

?  Be certain that the material that you elect to include will satisfy instructor requirements for the paper.

ú  Leave the material for a day.

ú  Return and review your outline to make any corrections.

ú  Write a first draft according to the outline.

ú  Make a clear copy.

ú  Leave the paper for a day.

ú  Return and edit your paper by going over it at least four times.

?  Start this process by first repositioning paragraphs and sentences.

?  Next add and delete material in a manner that furthers the objective of your paper.

?  Add in transitional words and phrases.

?  Know rules for using quotations and for crediting references in general.

?  Know how to construct a reference page.

?  Be certain that the paper complies with A.P.A. standards and any other expectations.

?  Check grammar and spelling.

?  Read the paper outloud.

ú  Make a copy.

Proofreading:

§  The author is responsible for proofreading his/ her paper and for correcting all errors prior to submission of his/ her paper.

§  The paper should be written in a manner that allows it to be fully understood by a lay person.

§  Reading a paper out loud helps to identify its problems and allows the author to hear how the paper sounds.

§  Having another person read the paper can be helpful as well, especially someone who is unfamiliar with the author’s writing style.

Choosing Sources of Information:

§  It is the author’s responsibility to select appropriate sources of information through the critical evaluation of such sources.

§  Considerations for choosing sources of information include the following:

ú  Is the source relevant?

ú  Is the source credible?

ú  Is the source authoritative?

ú  Is the source current?

ú  Is the source objective?

ú  Is the source accurate?

ú  Is the source professional?

 Expression of Ideas:

§  Considerations for analyzing the author’s expression of ideas include the following:

ú  Are thoughts expressed in an orderly fashion?

ú  Is punctuation used to support meaning?

ú  Is punctuation used according to proper grammar guidelines?

ú  Are transition devices used logically and fluidly?

ú  Is the paper written in a manner that allows it to be clear to a lay reader?

ú  Is expression smooth and fluid?

ú  Does the author use economy of expression?  Is the author succinct?  Is the author wordy?

ú  Does the author use nonstandard English?

ú  Are sentences overly-long?

ú  Are sentences overly-abrupt?

ú  Are sentences of varied length in an effort to hold the reader’s interest?

ú  Are paragraphs too long? 

ú  Does the author’s use of paragraphs provide pause of the reader?

ú  Do the paragraphs have unity, cohesiveness, and continuity?

ú  Are paragraphs used in a logical fashion to organize like information?

ú  Does each word used precisely mean what the author intended?

ú  Are human functions attributed to nonhuman sources?

ú  Are nonhuman functions attributed to humans?

ú  Is the paper written in third person?

ú  Is the paper written in a manner that does not show bias toward gender, culture, and disability?

ú  Is fact clearly differentiated from opinion?

ú  To what degree does the paper rely on factual substance that is obtained through objective research?

ú  If present, are generalizations appropriate?

ú  Is the paper’s content well-organized?

ú  Is the paper’s format well-organized?

ú  How much relevant factual substance is presented?

ú  What is the degree of quality and relevance of the factual substance presented?

Grammar:

§  Incorrect grammar and careless sentence construction block communication.

§  Considerations for analyzing grammar include the following, among other things:

ú  Is punctuation used correctly?

?  Are commas used correctly?

°         Are there comma splices?

?  Are question marks used correctly?

?  Are exclamation points used correctly?

?  Are colons used correctly?

?  Are semicolons used correctly?

?  Are dashes used correctly?

?  Are quotation marks used correctly?

?  Are brackets used correctly?

?  Are parentheses used correctly?

?  Are apostrophes used appropriately to depict ownership?

?  Is there correct use of spacing regarding punctuation?

°         Is one space used after commas and semicolons?

°         Are two spaces used after colons?

°         Is one space used when a colon is used to connote a ratio?

°         If a colon is used as part of a two-part title, does one space follow the colon?

°         Is one space used after a colon following the publisher location on the reference list?

°         Are two spaces used after the punctuation that ends a sentence and before the start of the next sentence?

°         Are two spaces used after the period that separates parts of a reference citation?

°         Is one space used after the period that is used for the initials of a person’s name?

°         Are no spaces used after the periods of abbreviations?

°         Are hyphens used without a space before or after the hyphen?

°         Are dashes used without a space before or after the dashes?

ú  Is neutrality used in the way of gender, culture, and disability?

ú  Are prepositions used correctly?

?  E.g.: Correct: The class will resume tomorrow.

?  E.g.: Incorrect: The class will resume on tomorrow.

ú  Are pronouns used correctly?

?  Is the reference to a noun clear?

°         E.g.: Correct:  The girl mentioned that she had eaten lunch with her mother who mentioned that she liked the color of the girl’s newest outfit.

°         E.g.: Incorrect: The girl mentioned that she had eaten lunch with her mother who mentioned that she liked the color of her newest outfit.

?  Do pronouns agree in number?

°         E.g.: Correct:  Each student should proofread his/ her paper and should make any necessary corrections to his/ her paper before submitting it.

°         E.g.: Incorrect:  Each student should proofread their paper and should make any necessary corrections to their paper before submitting it.

?  Do pronouns agree in gender?

°         E.g.: Correct:  The girl flirted with the boy as he petted her miniature female poodle and made fun of the pink color of her fur.  

°         E.g.: Incorrect:  The girl flirted with the boy as he petted her miniature female poodle and made fun of the pink color of its hair.

?  Are inanimate objects referred to as animate objects and are animate objects referred to as inanimate objects?

°         E.g.: Correct:  The agency’s policies reflected its values.

°         E.g.: Incorrect:  The agency’s policies reflected their values.

ú  Is pluralism used correctly?

?  E.g.: Correct:  The students picked up their grades from their teachers.

?  E.g.: Incorrect:  The students picked up their grade from their teachers.

ú  Are sentences composed correctly?

?  Are there run-on sentences?

°         E.g.: Correct:  The social service students decided to form a study group.  The social service students studied hard.

°         E.g.: Incorrect: The social service students decided to form a study group studied hard.

?  Are there sentence fragments?

°         E.g.: Correct: The dog bit the postman.

°         E.g.: Incorrect: The dog bit.

?  Are there subjectless sentences?

°         E.g.: Correct: The author found that, the harder students study, the better they do.

°         E.g.: Incorrect: Found that, the harder students study, the better they do.

ú  Is Standard English used?

ú  Is spelling correct?

ú  Is there subject/ verb disagreement?

?  Subjects and their verbs must agree in terms of pluralism and singularism.

°         E.g.: Correct: The students are going out to celebrate passing their test.

°         E.g.: Incorrect: The students is going out to celebrate passing their test.

ú  Is the correct tense used?

?  Active voice should be used in general.

°         E.g.: It is the author’s opinion that psychoactive medications should be used as a last resort.

?  Past tense should be used when discussing an action or a condition that occurred at a definite time in the past.

°         E.g.: On December 1, 2006, Jackson-Webber revised the program.

ú  Are contractions used?

?  Contractions should not be used in formal writing.

?  E.g.: Correct: The author could not understand the conclusions of the report.

?  E.g.: Incorrect: The author couldn’t understand the conclusions of the report.

ú  Are introductory words used correctly?

ú  Are transitionary devices used correctly?

?  E.g.: Correct:   The recipe calls for sugar, flour, and butter.  These ingredients should be mixed together with a low speed mixer until well blended.  Although the mixture is kneaded on a floured surface for about 10 minutes, care should be taken not to over-knead it.  Similarly, care should be taken not to under-knead it.  Finally, this mixture is spread onto a cookie sheet and baked for 45 minutes.

?  E.g.: Incorrect:  The recipe calls for sugar, flour, and butter.  These ingredients should be mixed together with a low speed mixer until well blended.  The mixture is kneaded on a floured surface for about 10 minutes.  Care should be taken not to over-knead it.  Care should be taken not to under-knead it.  The mixture is spread onto a cookie sheet and baked for 45 minutes.

ú  Are conjunctions used correctly?

?  E.g.: Correct:  If it’s Smuckers, it has to be good.

?  E.g.: Incorrect:  If it’s Smuckers, it’s got to be good.

ú  Is nonsexist language used?

?  E.g.: Correct: A domestic violence victim should be given all necessary information needed for him/ her to make appropriate safety choices.

?  E.g.: Incorrect:  A domestic violence victim should be given all necessary information needed for her to make appropriate safety choices.

ú  Is language used that contains an ethnic bias?

?  E.g.: Correct: Workers should consider wishing their clients “Happy Holidays” during the winter holidays.

?  E.g.: Incorrect: Workers should consider wishing their clients “Merry Christmas” during the Winter holidays.

ú  Is nondisablist language used?

?  E.g.: Correct:  The client with mental retardation obtained an apartment.

?  E.g.: Incorrect: The mentally retarded client obtained an apartment.

§  Students are encouraged to continually improve their grammar.

§  They are also encouraged consult expert grammar guides when composing any form of professional paper, presentation, or project.

ú  E.g.: The Harbrace Handbook.

Ink & Font:

§  The entire paper should be written in black ink.

§  The font selected for use should be a standard 12-point font, such as Times New Roman.

Spacing:

§  The paper is to have double-spacing between all lines of the manuscript.

Margins:

§  Margins should be 1.5 inches on all sides of each page.

§  Fully justified margins should be used for the paper’s text.

Length:

§  The course syllabus is a good place to check the required length of a paper.

§  The paper should not be too long.

§  The paper should not be too short.

§  All information in the paper should be relevant.

§  The information in the paper should not be overly redundant.

Numbering:

§  The title page is numbered as page 1.

§  The text, in cases where there is no abstract, starts page 2 of the document.

§  The reference page represents the last page of the text that is numbered unless there are appendixes.

§  Commas are not used as a part of page numbering.

§  Page numbers should appear in the upper right-hand corner of each page of the paper.

Abstract:

§  Papers created for Megan do not require an abstract.

§  If needed, please consult an A.P.A. source for more details on how to properly construct an abstract.

Paragraphs:

§  The first line of every paragraph is indented 5 spaces.

§  Full left justification of the remainder of the lines of the paragraph is used thereafter.

Headings:

§  Headings are used to efficiently organize categories of information for the reader- all as related to the paper’s subject.

§  The title of the heading should capture the type of information presented in its paragraphs which, in turn, should be directly related to the topic of the paper.

§  Headings work to organize the paper and to establish the importance of specific topics.

§  Topics of equal importance should use the same level of heading throughout the paper.

§  The title of a heading should be concise.

§  The heading should start one double-space below the last line of the text in the paragraph proceeding the heading.

§  After the heading is created, the sentences that contain the information to be covered under the heading start one double-space below the heading.

§  There are various kinds of headings that are used in A.P.A. style.

§  Papers created for Megan generally do not require more than the use of a single style of heading to organize requested data.

§  When using a single style of heading in a paper, the heading should be centered on the page.

§  The heading can either be underlined or can be left without underlining.

§  The first letter of each major word in the heading is capitalized.

§  If using more than one kind of heading, please consult an A.P.A. source for more details.

Title Page:

§  The title page should list the paper’s title.

§  Usually, it should indicate the author’s affiliation as well.

ú  However, Megan’s papers do not require listing of the author’s affiliation.

§  The title page should indicate the institution where the paper’s research was conducted.

ú  For Megan’s papers, this should be Asheville-Buncombe Technical Community College.

§  Normally, the title page contains a running head.

ú  However, Megan’s papers do not require the use of a running head.

§  The title should be typed in uppercase and lowercase letters.

§  The title should be centered on the title page.

§  If the title is two or more lines, double-spacing should occur between the lines.

§  The name of the author should be typed in uppercase and in lowercase letters and should be centered on the page one double-spaced line below the title.

§  The author’s institutional affiliation should be centered under the author’s name, appearing one double-spaced line below the author’s name.

§  The title that is selected for the paper should summarize the main idea of the paper in a concise fashion and should do so with style.

§  The title should be a concise statement of the main topic of the paper.

§  The title should indicate the theoretical issues presented in the paper and the relationship between them.

§  The title should, by itself, be able to provide a full explanation of what the paper is about.

Introduction, Body, & Conclusion:

§  All papers should have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

§  The body of the paper should include the introduction and the conclusion.

§  The body should begin at the top of the next page after the paper’s page.

§  The title of the paper should appear at the top of the first page of the paper’s body, and it should be double-spaced and centered on the page.

§  If an abstract is not used/ required, the first page of the body of the paper should be numbered as page 2.

§  The sections of the text that make-up the body of the paper should follow each other without a break.

Appendixes:

§  Because the requested number of pages is relatively small, Megan’s papers do not usually lend themselves to the use of appendixes according to A.P.A. style.

§  If an appendix is relevant, please consult an A.P.A. source for more details on how to construct one.

Footnotes:

§  Except in special circumstances, footnotes are not generally used as a standard part of A.P.A. style.

§  If relevant/ required, please consult an A.P.A. source for more details on the use of footnotes.

Capitalization:

§  The first word of a sentence should be capitalized.

§  The first word after a colon should be capitalized.

§  The major words in titles and headings should be capitalized.

§  Proper nouns and trade names should be capitalized.

§  Titles of tests or scales should be capitalized.

§  The names of books, articles, journals, and magazines should be capitalized.

§  Most elements on the title page are capitalized.

§  The running head, when used, is not capitalized beyond the first letter of its first word.

§  Page identifiers are capitalized when used.

§  Table titles are capitalized when used.

§  The titles of figures are capitalized when used.

§  Headings are capitalized.

§  Some elements of the reference list are capitalized.

Abbreviations:

§  Abbreviations are used sparingly in A.P.A. style.

§  These must be clarified appropriately for the reader before their use.

§  Abbreviations used must be typical of Standard English.

§  Latin abbreviations are only allowed in nonparenthetical material.

§  Units of measurement and statistical information are used only when they accompany numerical values.

§  Periods are used with abbreviations when:

ú  The initials of names are used.

ú  Geographical names are used except in the case of state names.

ú  Latin abbreviations are used.

ú  Abbreviations are used for references.

§  Acceptable abbreviations for use on the reference page include the following:

ú  Chapter = chap.

ú  Edition = ed.

ú  Revised edition = rev. ed.

ú  Second edition = 2^nd ed.

ú  Editor (Editors) = Ed. (Eds.)

ú  Translators = Trans.

ú  Page (pages) = p. (pp.)

ú  Volume = Vol.

ú  Volumes = vols.

ú  Number = No.

ú  Part = Pt.

ú  Technical Report = Tech. Rep.

ú  Supplement = Suppl.

ú  The two letter U.S. Postal Service abbreviations for states can be used without periods.

§  Standard abbreviations for metric units and the International System Equivalents can be used to denote types of measurement.

Tables:

§  In A.P.A. style, tables are not used for decoration.

§  When used in A.P.A. style, tables are normally used to present qualitative comparisons.

§  The information provided in the table should not duplicate but should supplement information in the text.

§  The table’s information must be relevant.

§  If a table represents borrowed information, the source must be properly credited.

§  There are several other rules that apply to composing tables in A.P.A. style.

§  If needed, please consult an A.P.A. source for more details on creating tables.

§  Because the requested number of pages is relatively small, Megan’s papers do not usually lend themselves to the use of tables according to A.P.A. style.

Figures:

§  In A.P.A. style, a figure is any illustration other than a table-- including images, graphs, photographs, drawings, or other depictions.

§  The use of a figure should be carefully considered.

§  In A.P.A. style, figures are not used for decoration.

§  Only figures that assume a direct relationship to the material covered in the paper should be considered for use, and these should be used only if the figure can convey the qualitative aspects of the data more efficiently than a table or text.

§  A figure should be necessary when used and should not to duplicate information provided in the text.

§  A figure should be the most efficient way to present information.

§  Figures should be selected carefully based upon how they suit a purpose.

§  If a figure represents borrowed information, the source must be properly credited.

§  There are several other rules that apply to composing figures in A.P.A. style.

ú  If needed, please consult an A.P.A. source for more details on using figures.

§  Because the requested number of pages is relatively small, Megan’s papers do not usually lend themselves to the use of figures according to A.P.A. style.

Seriation & Bullets:

§  Seriation, including the use of bullets, should not be employed simply for the writer’s convenience.

§  Elements listed in a series should be used to prevent misreading or to clarify the sequence of or the relationship between elements, particularly when these are lengthy or are complex.

§  When using seriation within a paragraph or a sentence, lowercase letters are used which are captured in parentheses and commas are used to separate three or more elements that do not have internal commas.

ú  E.g.: Individuals who are passive-aggressive commonly struggle with (a) anger, (b) assertion, (c) taking pot shots at people, (d) procrastination, (e) sarcasm, and (f) resistance.

Numbers & Mathematical Symbols:

§  In general, words are used to express numbers below 10 whereas numerals are used to express numbers 10 and above.

§  Words are used to express numbers below 10 when these numbers do not represent precise measurements and are not grouped for comparison with numbers 10 and above.

§  Numbers that are listed as part of pages of a citation are listed in numerals.

§  Commas are used between groups of numbers that have three digits in most figures of 1,000 or more.

§  The plurals of numerals are created by adding an “s” or “es” alone, without an apostrophe.

§  Standardized math symbols should be used according to A.P.A. guidelines.

§  Standard abbreviations for metric units and the International System Equivalents can be used to denote types of measurement.

§  When using a statistical term in a narrative, the term and not the symbol s